Persuasive/ Argumentative Essays
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We argue not because we're angry, but because argumentation causes us to examine our own and others' ideas carefully. It causes us to weigh conflicting claims; to make judgments about the nature of evidence and the procedures of investigation; to state our ideas clearly, accurately, and honestly; and to listen respectfully and critically to other people's ideas.

Understanding Ethos (Activity)

Ethos is one of the three elements of a successful argument.  (The other two elements are Logos and Pathos.)  Ethos refers to establishing the reliability and trustworthiness of the writer of an argument.  Try the following activity: Letting ten represent the highest and one the lowest, rate the following public figures for their appeal to character. Of course, you'll be considering more than just writing, but the activity should still give you some insight into what ethos is and how it affects credibility.

a. Abraham Lincoln        b. Adolf Hitler         c. Jesse Jackson

d. Richard M. Nixon        e. Michael Jackson  f. Ann Landers   

g. Jay Leno                     h. George Washington  i. Arnold Schwartzenegger

Emotion: Pathos

Many people believe that emotional appeals by their very nature subvert reason and, therefore, are better left to TV hucksters and political candidates than to writers who want their ideas taken seriously. Because of this common belief, audiences often respond negatively to appeals in an argument that are obviously intended to evoke feelings. Careful word choice also influences an argument's emotional appeal. The point is that the overall emotional texture of your argument is the result of many individual choices about which word to use.

• Should I speak of "drunk" or "intoxicated" drivers?

• Should I call them a "menace" or a "concern"?

• Should they be "thrown into jail" or "incarcerated"?

• Do we need to "teach them a lesson" or "make them aware of the consequences of their actions"?

Such choices, even though they must be made one at a time, can't be seen as independent of each other. Their force is cumulative. They communicate how you feel--and by implication how you think the reader ought to feel--about your subject. If you want the reader to identify with you emotionally, you'll choose words carefully, making sure they're appropriate for you as a writer, for your readers, and for your overall purpose in writing.

Logic: Logos

Frequent ways in which people violate the basic principles of clear thinking:

• Does the evidence truly warrant the general conclusions that the writer has drawn?

• Has all the evidence been considered or only evidence that favors the writer's position?

• Has the writer considered all the alternatives or oversimplified and reduced them to two or three?

• Are conclusions ever drawn from questionable generalizations?

• Are words used clearly, accurately, and honestly?

• Does the argument depend on emotionally charged language?

• Does the argument ever suggest that ideas or policies are good or bad simply because they are associated with certain individuals or groups?

• Does the writer ever argue by comparing one thing to another? If so, is the comparison fair and reasonable?

• Does the writer try to sweet-talk and flatter the reader?

• Does the argument suggest that an idea or course of action is good just because everyone else believes or is doing it?

If you apply these questions to the opposition's case, you'll get a good idea of where the reasoning is vulnerable. If necessary, make concessions, but try to offer counter-arguments. For example, "True, no direct correlation has been shown between higher school funding and increased scores on standardized achievement tests, but these tests are only one measure of educational progress. Moreover, they are not designed to measure the achievement of . . ."